Which Type Of Psychologist Would Be Most Interested In The Genetic Makeup Of An Individual?

This article is virtually the mental process. For the journal, run into Cognition (journal).

Act or procedure of knowing

Noesis () refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring cognition and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses".^[2] It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attending, thought, intelligence, the formation of knowledge, retentiveness and working retentiveness, judgment and evaluation, reasoning and computation, trouble solving and decision making, comprehension and production of language. Cognitive processes utilise existing cognition and discover new knowledge.

Cognitive processes are analyzed from different perspectives within different contexts, notably in the fields of linguistics, musicology, anesthesia, neuroscience, psychiatry, psychology, education, philosophy, anthropology, biology, systemics, logic, and figurer science.^[iii] These and other approaches to the analysis of noesis (such every bit embodied noesis) are synthesized in the developing field of cerebral science, a progressively autonomous academic subject.

Etymology [edit]

The word cognition dates back to the 15th century, where it meant "thinking and awareness".^[four] The term comes from the Latin substantive cognitio ('examination,' 'learning,' or 'knowledge'), derived from the verb cognosco , a compound of con ('with') and gnōscō ('know'). The latter half, gnōscō, itself is a cognate of a Greek verb, gi(g)nόsko ( γι(γ)νώσκω , 'I know,' or 'perceive').^{[five] [6]}

Early on studies [edit]

Despite the word cognitive itself dating back to the 15th century,^[4] attention to cerebral processes came nearly more eighteen centuries earlier, beginning with Aristotle (384–322 BC) and his involvement in the inner workings of the heed and how they bear on the human experience. Aristotle focused on cognitive areas pertaining to memory, perception, and mental imagery. He placed great importance on ensuring that his studies were based on empirical testify, that is, scientific information that is gathered through ascertainment and conscientious experimentation.^[seven] 2 millennia after, the background for modern concepts of cognition was laid during the Enlightenment by thinkers such equally John Locke and Dugald Stewart who sought to develop a model of the listen in which ideas were acquired, remembered and manipulated.^[8]

During the early on nineteenth century cognitive models were developed both in philosophy—specially by authors writing virtually the philosophy of mind—and within medicine, especially by physicians seeking to empathize how to cure madness. In Uk, these models were studied in the academy by scholars such equally James Sully at Academy College London, and they were even used by politicians when because the national Elementary Instruction Act of 1870.^[9]

As psychology emerged as a burgeoning field of study in Europe, whilst also gaining a following in America, scientists such as Wilhelm Wundt, Herman Ebbinghaus, Mary Whiton Calkins, and William James would offer their contributions to the study of human cognition.

Early theorists [edit]

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) emphasized the notion of what he chosen introspection: examining the inner feelings of an individual. With introspection, the field of study had to be conscientious to describe their feelings in the most objective manner possible in order for Wundt to find the information scientific.^{[10] [xi]} Though Wundt'southward contributions are past no means minimal, modern psychologists notice his methods to be quite subjective and choose to rely on more objective procedures of experimentation to make conclusions nigh the human cognitive process.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) conducted cognitive studies that mainly examined the function and chapters of human memory. Ebbinghaus adult his own experiment in which he constructed over ii,000 syllables made out of nonexistent words, for case, EAS. He then examined his ain personal ability to learn these not-words. He purposely chose non-words every bit opposed to existent words to command for the influence of pre-existing feel on what the words might symbolize, thus enabling easier recollection of them.^{[ten] [12]} Ebbinghaus observed and hypothesized a number of variables that may have affected his power to larn and recollect the non-words he created. One of the reasons, he concluded, was the corporeality of time between the presentation of the list of stimuli and the recitation or recall of the aforementioned. Ebbinghaus was the first to record and plot a "learning curve" and a "forgetting curve".^[13] His piece of work heavily influenced the written report of series position and its upshot on memory (discussed further beneath).

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was an influential American pioneer in the realm of psychology. Her piece of work too focused on human retentiveness capacity. A common theory, chosen the recency effect, tin can exist attributed to the studies that she conducted.^[14] The recency effect, also discussed in the subsequent experiment department, is the tendency for individuals to be able to accurately retrieve the final items presented in a sequence of stimuli. Calkin's theory is closely related to the aforementioned report and decision of the retention experiments conducted by Hermann Ebbinghaus.^[15]

William James (1842–1910) is another pivotal figure in the history of cognitive science. James was quite discontent with Wundt's emphasis on introspection and Ebbinghaus' use of nonsense stimuli. He instead chose to focus on the human learning experience in everyday life and its importance to the study of knowledge. James' virtually significant contribution to the study and theory of cognition was his textbook Principles of Psychology which preliminarily examines aspects of cognition such equally perception, memory, reasoning, and attention.^[xv]

René Descartes (1596-1650) was a seventeenth-century philosopher who came up with the phrase "Cogito, ergo sum." Which means "I think, therefore I am." He took a philosophical approach to the written report of knowledge and the mind, with his Meditations he wanted people to meditate forth with him to come to the aforementioned conclusions as he did only in their own complimentary cognition.^[16]

Psychology [edit]

When the heed makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables college-level thinking (abstract thinking).

In psychology, the term "knowledge" is usually used within an information processing view of an private'southward psychological functions,^[17] and such is the same in cognitive engineering.^[xviii] In the study of social cognition, a branch of social psychology, the term is used to explicate attitudes, attribution, and group dynamics.^[17] Notwithstanding, psychological research inside the field of cerebral science has too suggested an embodied approach to understanding cognition. Contrary to the traditional computationalist approach, embodied noesis emphasizes the trunk'due south meaning role in the acquisition and development of cognitive capabilities.^{[nineteen] [twenty]}

Homo cognition is conscious and unconscious, concrete or abstract, equally well as intuitive (like knowledge of a linguistic communication) and conceptual (like a model of a language). It encompasses processes such as memory, clan, concept formation, pattern recognition, language, attention, perception, action, problem solving, and mental imagery.^{[21] [22]} Traditionally, emotion was non thought of every bit a cognitive process, only now much research is being undertaken to examine the cognitive psychology of emotion; research is likewise focused on one's awareness of one's own strategies and methods of cognition, which is called metacognition.The concept of cognition has gone through several revisions through the evolution of disciplines within psychology.

Psychologists initially understood cognition governing human action as information processing. This was a motility known as cognitivism in the 1950s, emerging subsequently the Behaviorist move viewed cognition equally a form of behavior.^[23] Cognitivism approached cognition as a grade of computation, viewing the mind as a motorcar and consciousness as an executive function.^[19] Still; post cognitivism began to emerge in the 1990s as the development of cognitive scientific discipline presented theories that highlighted the necessity of cognitive action as embodied, extended, and producing dynamic processes in the mind.^[24] The development of Cognitive psychology arose as psychology from different theories began exploring these dynamics concerning listen and environment, starting a movement from these prior dualist paradigms that prioritized cognition as systematic computation or exclusively behavior.^[19]

Piaget's theory of cognitive development [edit]

For years, sociologists and psychologists accept conducted studies on cerebral development, i.eastward. the construction of homo thought or mental processes.

Jean Piaget was 1 of the most important and influential people in the field of developmental psychology. He believed that humans are unique in comparison to animals because we have the capacity to practise "abstruse symbolic reasoning". His work can be compared to Lev Vygotsky, Sigmund Freud, and Erik Erikson who were likewise peachy contributors in the field of developmental psychology. Today, Piaget is known for studying the cerebral development in children, having studied his ain iii children and their intellectual development, from which he would come up to a theory of cognitive development that describes the developmental stages of childhood.^[25]

Stage	Age or Menstruation	Clarification[26]
Sensorimotor stage	Infancy (0–2 years)	Intelligence is present; motor action but no symbols; noesis is developing yet limited; cognition is based on experiences/ interactions; mobility allows the child to acquire new things; some linguistic communication skills are developed at the cease of this stage. The goal is to develop object permanence, achieving a basic understanding of causality, fourth dimension, and space.
Preoperational stage	Toddler and Early Childhood (2–7 years)	Symbols or language skills are present; retention and imagination are adult; non-reversible and not-logical thinking; shows intuitive trouble solving; begins to perceive relationships; grasps the concept of conservation of numbers; predominantly egoistic thinking.
Concrete operational phase	Uncomplicated and Early Boyhood (7–12 years)	Logical and systematic form of intelligence; manipulation of symbols related to physical objects; thinking is now characterized by reversibility and the ability to take the office of another; grasps concepts of the conservation of mass, length, weight, and volume; predominantly operational thinking; nonreversible and egocentric thinking
Formal operational stage	Adolescence and Adulthood (12 years and on)	Logical employ of symbols related to abstract concepts; Acquires flexibility in thinking also equally the capacities for abstract thinking and mental hypothesis testing; can consider possible alternatives in complex reasoning and problem-solving.

Common types of tests on human cognition [edit]

Serial position

The serial position experiment is meant to test a theory of retentivity that states that when information is given in a series fashion, we tend to call up data at the beginning of the sequence, called the primacy effect, and data at the end of the sequence, called the recency consequence. Consequently, information given in the middle of the sequence is typically forgotten, or not recalled as easily. This study predicts that the recency effect is stronger than the primacy effect, because the information that is virtually recently learned is nevertheless in working memory when asked to be recalled. Information that is learned first yet has to go through a retrieval procedure. This experiment focuses on human memory processes.^[27]

Word superiority

The discussion superiority experiment presents a field of study with a give-and-take, or a letter of the alphabet by itself, for a brief period of time, i.e. 40ms, and they are then asked to recall the letter that was in a item location in the give-and-take. In theory, the subject should be ameliorate able to correctly call back the letter when information technology was presented in a give-and-take than when it was presented in isolation. This experiment focuses on human speech and linguistic communication.^[28]

Brown-Peterson

In the Brown-Peterson experiment, participants are briefly presented with a trigram and in 1 item version of the experiment, they are so given a distractor task, asking them to identify whether a sequence of words is in fact words, or non-words (due to existence misspelled, etc.). Afterward the distractor task, they are asked to recall the trigram from before the distractor chore. In theory, the longer the distractor job, the harder information technology will be for participants to correctly retrieve the trigram. This experiment focuses on human short-term memory.^[29]

Memory span

During the memory span experiment, each bailiwick is presented with a sequence of stimuli of the aforementioned kind; words depicting objects, numbers, messages that audio similar, and letters that sound different. Later on being presented with the stimuli, the subject field is asked to recall the sequence of stimuli that they were given in the exact guild in which it was given. In i particular version of the experiment, if the field of study recalled a listing correctly, the list length was increased by ane for that blazon of material, and vice versa if information technology was recalled incorrectly. The theory is that people take a retentiveness span of about 7 items for numbers, the same for messages that sound dissimilar and curt words. The retentivity span is projected to be shorter with letters that sound similar and with longer words.^[30]

Visual search

In ane version of the visual search experiment, a participant is presented with a window that displays circles and squares scattered across it. The participant is to identify whether there is a green circle on the window. In the featured search, the field of study is presented with several trial windows that have blue squares or circles and one green circle or no dark-green circle in it at all. In the conjunctive search, the subject is presented with trial windows that have blue circles or green squares and a present or absent green circle whose presence the participant is asked to identify. What is expected is that in the characteristic searches, reaction fourth dimension, that is the time it takes for a participant to identify whether a green circumvolve is present or non, should not change equally the number of distractors increases. Conjunctive searches where the target is absent should have a longer reaction time than the conjunctive searches where the target is present. The theory is that in characteristic searches, it is easy to spot the target, or if information technology is absent, because of the difference in colour between the target and the distractors. In conjunctive searches where the target is absent-minded, reaction time increases considering the subject area has to wait at each shape to determine whether information technology is the target or not considering some of the distractors if non all of them, are the same color as the target stimuli. Conjunctive searches where the target is present have less time because if the target is plant, the search betwixt each shape stops.^[31]

Knowledge representation

The semantic network of knowledge representation systems have been studied in various paradigms. One of the oldest paradigms is the leveling and sharpening of stories as they are repeated from memory studied by Bartlett. The semantic differential used factor analysis to determine the main meanings of words, finding that value or "goodness" of words is the first factor. More controlled experiments examine the categorical relationships of words in free recall. The hierarchical structure of words has been explicitly mapped in George Miller's Wordnet. More than dynamic models of semantic networks take been created and tested with neural network experiments based on computational systems such equally latent semantic analysis (LSA), Bayesian analysis, and multidimensional factor analysis. The semantics (meaning) of words is studied by all the disciplines of cognitive science.^[32]

Metacognition [edit]

Metacognition is an awareness of one'south thought processes and an agreement of the patterns behind them. The term comes from the root word meta, significant "beyond", or "on meridian of".^[33] Metacognition can take many forms, such as reflecting on 1's ways of thinking and knowing when and how to utilise particular strategies for trouble-solving.^[33] In that location are more often than not two components of metacognition: (ane) knowledge nearly noesis and (2) regulation of cognition.^[34]

Metamemory, divers as knowing about memory and mnemonic strategies, is an specially important form of metacognition.^[35] Academic research on metacognitive processing across cultures is in the early stages, but there are indications that further piece of work may provide better outcomes in cross-cultural learning betwixt teachers and students.^[36]

Writings on metacognition appointment dorsum at least as far every bit two works by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC): On the Soul and the Parva Naturalia.^[37]

Improving cognition [edit]

Physical practise

Aerobic and anaerobic exercise have been studied apropos cerebral improvement.^[38] At that place appear to be short-term increases in attention span, verbal and visual retentivity in some studies. However, the effects are transient and diminish over fourth dimension, after abeyance of the physical activity.^[39]

Dietary supplements

Studies evaluating phytoestrogen, blueberry supplementation and antioxidants showed pocket-size increases in cognitive function subsequently supplementation but no significant effects compared to placebo.^{[forty] [41] [42]}

Pleasurable social stimulation

Exposing individuals with cognitive impairment (i.eastward., Dementia) to daily activities designed to stimulate thinking and memory in a social setting, seems to improve knowledge. Although study materials are small, and larger studies demand to confirm the results, the effect of social cognitive stimulation seems to be larger than the furnishings of some drug treatments.^[43]

Other methods

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been shown to meliorate cognition in individuals without dementia one month subsequently treatment session compared to earlier treatment. The effect was non significantly larger compared to placebo.^[44] Computerized cognitive training, utilising a reckoner based preparation authorities for different cerebral functions has been examined in a clinical setting simply no lasting furnishings has been shown.^[45]

See also [edit]

• Embodied knowledge
• Cognitive biological science
• Cognitive musicology
• Cognitive computing
• Cognitive psychology
• Cerebral scientific discipline
• Cognitivism
• Comparative knowledge
• Data processing applied science and aging
• Mental chronometry – i.e., the measuring of cognitive processing speed
• Nootropic
• Outline of human intelligence – a list of traits, capacities, models, and inquiry fields of human intelligence, and more.
• Outline of idea – a list that identifies many types of thoughts, types of thinking, aspects of thought, related fields, and more.
• Cognitive Abilities Screening Musical instrument

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

• Ardila A (2018). Historical Development of Human Cognition. A Cultural-Historical Neuropsychological Perspective. Springer. ISBN978-9811068867.
• Coren South, Ward LM, Enns JT (1999). Sensation and Perception. Harcourt Caryatid. p. 9. ISBN978-0-470-00226-i.
• Lycan WG, ed. (1999). Mind and Noesis: An Album (2d ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
• Stanovich, Keith (2009). What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought . New Haven (CT): Yale Academy Press. ISBN978-0-300-12385-2.

External links [edit]

Wikiversity has learning resource nigh Cognition

Look up cognition in Wiktionary, the complimentary dictionary.

• Knowledge An international journal publishing theoretical and experimental papers on the study of the mind.
• Information on music cognition, University of Amsterdam
• Cognitie.NL Archived 2011-10-19 at the Wayback Machine Data on noesis research, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and University of Amsterdam (UvA)
• Emotional and Decision Making Lab, Carnegie Mellon, EDM Lab
• The Limits of Human Noesis – an article describing the evolution of mammals' cognitive abilities
• One-half-heard phone conversations reduce cognitive performance
• The limits of intelligence Douglas Play tricks, Scientific American, 14 June 14, 2011.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition

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